Scroll all the way down to see all of our resources for the first century.
You will find:
- Our summaries and images
- Curated documentaries
- Recommended books (recommendations include books for parents (or advanced readers), young adults, and younger. see notations)
Summary
The Roman Empire reached its height, shaping the foundations of Western civilization through governance, religion, and innovation. Under Emperor Augustus, Rome transitioned from a republic to a stable empire. He established the Pax Romana, a long period of peace that fostered trade, law, and cultural unity across Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. Augustus rebuilt Rome with grand marble structures, like temples and forums, using propaganda to promote family values and imperial strength.
Nero, infamous for the Great Fire of Rome that destroyed much of the city, blamed Christians and began harsh persecutions, executing many in arenas. Yet, he rebuilt with wider streets and his lavish Golden House. The year 69 AD, known as the Year of the Four Emperors, brought civil war after Nero's fall, highlighting the empire's fragility before Vespasian restored order.
Religiously, the century birthed Christianity. Jesus of Nazareth, crucified under Roman rule in Judea, taught love, forgiveness, and justice. His followers, like Paul the Apostle, spread these ideas through letters that became part of the New Testament, transforming Judaism and inspiring ethics that underpin Western human rights and philosophy.
The First Jewish-Roman War ended with Titus burning Jerusalem and its Second, scattering Jews in the diaspora and shifting their faith toward rabbinic traditions.
Disasters like Mount Vesuvius's eruption in 79 AD buried Pompeii, preserving snapshots of daily life for future study. Roman innovations, such as advanced concrete enabling domes like the Pantheon's and aqueducts like the Aqua Claudia for clean water, revolutionized building and public health.
Rome expanded westward, conquering Britain in 43 CE under Claudius, integrating provinces through roads and Romanization. Thinkers like Seneca advanced Stoic philosophy, emphasizing resilience and ethics. Historian Josephus chronicled these events, offering diverse perspectives. Overall, the first century's blend of empire-building, religious shifts, and technological leaps laid groundwork for Western law, Christianity's dominance, and enduring cultural values, influencing everything from democracy to architecture today.
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Photo of the Arch of Titus, a 1st-century Roman triumphal arch at the Forum Romanum in Rome built to honor Emperor Titus’s victories.
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Augustus
63 BC-14 AD
Augustus, born Octavian, was Rome's first emperor, transforming the Republic into the Principate after defeating Antony and Cleopatra at Actium (31 BC). He ruled for 41 years, ushering in the Pax Romana—two centuries of relative peace and prosperity. He reformed the army, administration, and taxes; expanded borders to natural frontiers; and rebuilt Rome with marble temples, forums, and the Ara Pacis celebrating peace. A master of propaganda, he promoted traditional values
while holding absolute power disguised as republican restoration. His stable
succession and governance model shaped the empire's golden age.
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Statue of Augustus of Prima Porta, a 1st-century Roman marble sculpture of Emperor Augustus in military pose, displayed in the Vatican Museums.
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Jesus
4 BC-30 AD
Jesus of Nazareth was a Jewish preacher and religious leader in Roman Judea. According to the New Testament Gospels, he taught about the Kingdom of God, performed miracles, gathered disciples, and emphasized love, forgiveness, and justice. Christians believe he is the Son of God, the Messiah, whose death by crucifixion and resurrection offer salvation. His teachings and resurrection inspired Christianity, which grew from a small movement to the world's largest religion, influencing ethics, law, art, philosophy, and culture profoundly. Jesus is history's most impactful figure, shaping people’s lives, Western civilization and humanitarian ideals.
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Painting The Sermon on the Mount (1877) by Carl Heinrich Bloch depicts Jesus teaching on a hillside to gathered listeners.
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Great Fire of Rome
64
The Great Fire of Rome raged from July 18–27, starting in merchant shops near the Circus Maximus. It devastated 10 of 14 districts, destroying temples, homes, and landmarks; thousands died. Rumors blamed Emperor Nero for arson to clear land for his palace, but was likely an accident in a crowded, wooden city. Nero accused Christians, launching the first major persecution: executions by burning, crucifixion, and arena spectacles. It enabled Nero's lavish rebuilding (wider streets, brick buildings) and his Golden House, but fueled his
unpopularity, contributing to his downfall. It marked early Christian martyrdom and shaped Nero's tyrannical legacy.
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Painting The Fire of Rome, 18 July 64 AD by Hubert Robert (1785) shows the Great Fire of Rome raging through the city’s streets and buildings.
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Destruction of the Second Temple
70
During the First Jewish-Roman War (66–73), Roman forces under Titus besieged Jerusalem after a Jewish revolt against Roman rule. After months of brutal siege—famine killed many inside—the legions breached walls. On the 9th of August, they stormed and burned the Second Temple, built by Herod, destroying Judaism's central sanctuary. The city was razed; estimates suggest over one million dead or enslaved. Treasures like the Menorah were paraded in Rome (shown on Arch of Titus).This catastrophe ended temple-based Judaism, birthing rabbinic tradition, and deepened Jewish diaspora while affirming Roman dominance in Judea.
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Reconstructed image of Jerusalem’s Second Temple, originally rebuilt in the 6th century BC and later expanded by Herod before its destruction in AD 70.
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Maison Carree
4-12
The Maison Carrée in Nîmes, France, is one of the best-preserved Roman temples, dedicated to Gaius and Lucius Caesar, grandsons of Augustus. This pseudoperipteral Corinthian hexastyle temple features a raised podium, deep pronaos with free-standing columns, and engaged columns on sides—exemplifying Augustan classical ideals. It inspired neoclassical buildings like the Virginia State Capitol (Jefferson) and La Madeleine in Paris, symbolizing enduring Roman design. Historically, it reflects imperial propaganda and provincial Romanization; surviving as a church ensured preservation.
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Photo of the Maison Carrée in Nîmes, a remarkably well-preserved early Roman temple in southern France built during the 1st century BC.
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Roman Colosseum
70-80
The Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheatre), begun by Vespasian and completed by Titus, is the largest ancient amphitheater, seating about 50,000–80,000 spectators. Built of concrete, travertine, and brick, it hosted gladiatorial combats, animal hunts, mock naval battles (via flooded arena), and executions—symbolizing imperial power and public entertainment. Innovative features included velarium (awning) for shade, complex underground hypogeum for lifts/traps, and numbered entrances for crowd control. Damaged by earthquakes and stone-robbing, it remains an enduring icon of Roman engineering and culture.
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The Colosseum in Rome, captured in October 2020 — iconic ancient amphitheater under a clear sky.
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New Applications of Roman Concrete
First Century
Roman concrete (opus caementicium), perfected in the 1st century, mixed lime, volcanic ash, and aggregates. The ash created a chemical reaction forming durable crystals, enabling underwater curing and immense strength. In the 1st century, it revolutionized architecture: vast structures like the Colosseum's foundations, harbors, aqueducts, and especially the Pantheon's unreinforced 142 foot dome—still the largest. This innovation allowed bold, cost-effective designs with curved forms. Recent studies reveal self-healing via lime clasts; modern recreations promise superior, long-lasting concrete for applications in the 21st century.
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Interior dome of the so-called Temple of Mercury (a Roman thermal bath ruin with famous acoustics) in Baia, Italy — photographed on 16 September 2021.
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Refinement in Aqueducts
First Century
Roman aqueducts advanced dramatically in scale, engineering, and reach. Key projects included the Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus (begun by Caligula 38, completed by Claudius 52)—Rome's longest, with towering multi-tiered arches. The iconic Pont du Gard (c. 19 BC–50 AD) in France exemplified precise multi-level arcades for valley crossings. Innovations featured gentle gradients (1:4800), siphons, tunnels, and settling tanks for clean flow. These supplied vast water volumes for baths, fountains, and homes, enabling urban growth and public hygiene across the empire.
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Photo of the ancient Roman Pont du Gard aqueduct bridge in France, spanning the Gardon River with its iconic three-tiered arches.
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Spread of Christianity
First Century
Christianity emerged from the teachings and crucifixion of Jesus in Roman Judea, as a small Jewish sect promising salvation through his resurrection. Building on this foundation, the religion spread rapidly across the Roman Empire, thanks to dedicated apostles like Peter and Paul, who transformed it into a universal faith to include gentiles that shaped Western civilization's ethics, laws, and sense of community.
Peter, one of Jesus' closest disciples, became a key leader in Jerusalem after the resurrection. Known as the "rock" on which the church was built, he focused on preaching to fellow Jews, performing miracles, and organizing early believers. By the 40s AD, Peter expanded his efforts beyond Judea, traveling to Antioch and eventually Rome, where he helped establish a Christian community. Under Emperor Nero's brutal persecutions in 64 AD—following the Great Fire of Rome—Peter was crucified upside down around 67 AD. His martyrdom symbolized unwavering faith, inspiring Christians to endure hardships and strengthening the church's resolve. Peter's emphasis on leadership and unity laid groundwork for organized religion in the West, influencing concepts like moral authority and communal worship.
Paul, originally a Jewish persecutor named Saul, underwent a dramatic conversion around 34 AD on the road to Damascus. Renaming himself Paul, he became Christianity's greatest missionary, undertaking three major journeys from the 40s to 50s AD. He preached to non-Jews in cities like Corinth, Ephesus, and Philippi, arguing that faith in Jesus, not Jewish laws, was key to salvation. Paul's letters, or epistles—such as Romans and Corinthians—formed much of the New Testament, teaching grace, love, and equality. Arrested in Jerusalem around 58 AD, he appealed to Rome and was likely executed there in the 60s AD. His work made Christianity accessible to diverse cultures, fostering its growth from a few hundred followers to thousands by century's end.
Despite the destruction of Jerusalem's Temple in 70 AD during the Jewish-Roman War, Christianity spread through house churches, word-of-mouth, and Roman roads. By 100 AD, communities thrived in Asia Minor, Greece, and North Africa. This expansion introduced ideas of human dignity and charity that underpin Western democracy, art, and humanitarianism today, turning a regional movement into a cornerstone of civilization.
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Baroque oil painting by Giovanni Lanfranco depicting the emotional separation of Saints Peter and Paul before martyrdom, with dynamic figures, rich warm tones, and dramatic lighting.
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First Jewish-Roman War
66-73
The First Jewish-Roman War, from 66 to 73 AD, was a major revolt by Jews in the Roman province of Judea against harsh imperial rule. It highlighted tensions in the diverse Roman Empire during the first century, a time of expansion and internal conflicts that tested Roman control and influenced the rise of new religious ideas in Western civilization.
Judea had been under Roman governance since 63 BC, but resentment grew due to heavy taxes, cultural clashes, and corrupt officials like procurator Gessius Florus, who seized temple funds. In 66 AD, protests in Jerusalem escalated into full rebellion when Jewish zealots expelled Roman troops and massacred a garrison. The revolt quickly spread: rebels seized key sites like Masada fortress, and fighting erupted in Galilee and other regions. Jewish factions, including Zealots and Sicarii, united against Rome but often fought among themselves, weakening their defense.
Emperor Nero sent General Vespasian with 60,000 troops to crush the uprising. From 67 AD, Vespasian methodically reconquered Galilee, capturing cities like Jotapata after brutal sieges—Josephus, a Jewish commander who defected to Rome, later chronicled these horrors. By 68 AD, much of the north was subdued, but Nero's death paused the campaign amid Rome's civil war.
In 69 AD, Vespasian became emperor, leaving his son Titus to besiege Jerusalem in 70 AD. The city, swollen with Passover pilgrims, endured famine and infighting. After five months, Romans breached the walls, slaughtering thousands and burning the Second Temple on August 9— a devastating loss, as it was Judaism's holiest site. Over one million died or were enslaved; survivors fled, expanding the Jewish diaspora.
The war ended in 73 AD with the fall of Masada, where 960 rebels chose suicide over capture. This conflict ended temple-centered Judaism, fostering rabbinic traditions focused on scripture and synagogues, which shaped modern Judaism and indirectly aided Christianity's growth by scattering communities. For Rome, it demonstrated military might but exposed provincial vulnerabilities, influencing later governance and contributing to Western ideas of resistance and empire.
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Romantic 1867 oil painting by Francesco Hayez depicting the dramatic destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem amid chaos, flames, violence, and suffering.
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Science, Technology and Ideas
Roman scientific thought and technology emphasized practical applications over abstract theories, building on Greek ideas to create tools that supported a vast empire and laid foundations for Western progress. Unlike earlier philosophers, Romans like Pliny the Elder focused on observing nature empirically—his Natural History (77 AD) compiled knowledge on biology, geology, and astronomy, encouraging a systematic approach that influenced later encyclopedias and the scientific method.
Engineering shone brightest. Innovations in hydraulic concrete, perfected around this time, enabled durable structures like the Colosseum, which hosted massive events and demonstrated physics in action through arches and vaults. Aqueducts, such as the Aqua Claudia (completed 52 AD), used gravity and precise surveying to deliver fresh water over long distances, improving urban sanitation and public health in cities like Rome. This reduced diseases, supporting a population boom and fostering trade via extensive roads—over 50,000 miles of paved highways with drainage systems that sped military movements and commerce.
Medicine advanced too: Roman surgeons developed tools like scalpels and forceps for battlefield wounds, while texts by Celsus (c. 25 BC–50 AD) detailed anatomy and hygiene, promoting empirical treatments that saved lives and inspired medieval practices.
Other progress included glassblowing techniques (invented mid-century in Syria but adopted empire-wide), creating affordable windows and vessels, and early water mills for grinding grain, boosting agriculture.
These advancements had real societal impacts: Cleaner cities promoted longevity, efficient infrastructure unified diverse provinces, and empirical observation encouraged problem-solving. Critical for Western thought, Romans preserved Greek knowledge, emphasized utility in science, and set precedents for engineering marvels, influencing everything from Renaissance architecture to modern urban planning and evidence-based inquiry.
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1859 woodcut illustration of Pliny the Elder (Plinio Secondo) from Cesare Cantù's "Grande Illustrazione del Lombardo Veneto" Vol. 3, depicting the Roman scholar in classical style.
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Videos
General First Century
Augustus
The Great Fire of Rome
The First Jewish-Roman War
Maison Carree
Roman Colosseum
Roman Concrete
Aqueducts
Spread of Christianity in the First Century (Saints Peter and Paul)
Science, Technology and Ideas
Books
Augustus
- Augustus: The Life of Rome's First Emperor by Anthony Everitt (2006)
Praised as readable with vivid storytelling that makes complex politics accessible. It's a solid entry point without overwhelming detail.
Recommended age: 14+ - I, Claudius by Robert Graves (1934)
A classic historical novel narrated by Claudius (Augustus's great-nephew), with Augustus as a major character in the early parts. It's dramatic, witty, and engaging—perfect for teens who like fiction with history.
Recommended age: 15+ - All About August Caesar: A Kid's Guide to Rome's First Emperor
Recommended age: 9-12 - Augustus: First Emperor of Rome by Adrian Goldsworthy (2014)
Top pick for accessibility—detailed yet approachable, with excellent military and political insights. Goldsworthy's clear style makes it engaging without being dry. Many consider it "top-tier" and a great modern choice.
Recommended for adults and advanced readers - Augustus by John Williams (1972)
A National Book Award-winning historical novel told through letters, memoirs, and documents. It's beautifully written, introspective, and gripping—more literary than straight history, but very engaging for adults who enjoy narrative nonfiction/fiction blends.
Science, Technology and Ideas
- The Boys' and Girls' Pliny the Elder by Pliny the Elder
A kid-friendly selection from Pliny's Natural History, with fun facts on animals, plants, inventions, and wonders of the world. It's engaging and story-like, perfect for introducing ancient "science" without overwhelming density.
Recommended age: 12–16 - Science and Technology in Ancient Rome: The History and Legacy of the Romans’ Technological Advances
A concise, readable overview of Roman innovations (roads, aqueducts, concrete, medicine) with simple explanations and historical context. Often recommended as an easy entry for younger readers interested in "how things worked."
Recommended age: 14+ - Engineering in the Ancient World
A classic, enthusiastic overview of Greek/Roman engineering (power sources, water tech, cranes, siege machines) with clear explanations and illustrations. Engaging and practical—great for understanding first-century Roman applications.
Recommended for adults or advanced readers - The Ancient Engineers: An Astonishing Look Back at the Ancient Wonders of the World and Their Creators
A lively, story-focused look at ancient engineering marvels, including Roman aqueducts, roads, and concrete. It's fun, anecdotal, and wide ranging.
Recommended for adults or advanced readers - Natural History: A Selection by Pliny the Elder
The most recommended accessible version of Pliny's massive encyclopedia—curated excerpts on animals, plants, minerals, art, technology, and wonders. Witty, varied, and full of "wow" facts; Pliny's curiosity shines through. Frequently praised as the best intro to his work and Roman worldview.
Recommended for adults or advanced readers